Nice Essay

The historical process which led to the creation of rationalism in architecture had none of its biological inevitability, and had no clear beginnings which can be pinpointed with precision. There were a number of predisposing causes and strands of ideas, each with its own pedigree.1 Rationalism, in general, started in the eighteenth century with the birth of progressive ideals and the Industrial Revolution. As factors evolved from both conditions, the architecture of the era was inevitably affected. The idealists wanted to come up with the idealistic city, obsessed with the Utopian thought of changing a materialistic city to one which is more humane and harmonious. Several styles evolved and in particular, Traditionalism stood out. Many people believed that tradition was to inspire invention and at the same time invention keeps tradition alive. However, it was only when Marc Antoine Laugier came up with the concept of the primitive hut did the theory of how the best forms were rooted in functional or structural demands was developed and that was how Rationalism started. It was with this, that the Rationalist doctrine re-emerged many years after in Italy.

After the war, Mussolini felt no constraints to use Rome as his play set and had the plan to renovate the place with a blend of theatricality, functionalism and propaganda.2 By the time Mussolini took control, Fascism was already well established. Thus there was minimal suspicion with reference to socialist ideology. There was a wide span of possibilities to play up various architectural styles with the focus on the concern for the consciousness of history. That opened up the new possibilities for modern tradition. That was also how a Rationalist doctrine re-emerged, under Gruppo 7.

Gruppo 7 was made up of 7 young architectural students. They started the third major movement in Italy, Rationalism, after Futurism and Novecentism. The members of the group were Guiseppe Terragni, Carlo Enrico Rava, Luigi Figini and Gino Pollini, Guido Frette, Ubaldo Castagnoli (later replaced by Adalberto Libera) and Sebastiano Larco, with the former three being the key players. During the First World War, architecture in Italy was influenced mostly by Novecentism and they were forced to bear with the current movement. After the war, with their personal maturity, architectural educations and political awareness, the Rationalists attempted to fix the post-war social, economic and political situations, through the introduction of Rationalism in the Italian architectural realm. Little do they know, at that point, they had actually failed to see the social needs of Traditionalism in Italy.

The Rationalists opened its discussion by declaring that there was a “new spirit” existing in Europe and a fresh, vital interrelationship of all the arts manifested this new spirit. In an effort to strengthen their point, they criticized Futurism and Novecentism for lacking in this aspect. They described Futurism as an “artificial impulse”, “empty, destructive fury that confuses the good and the bad” and conveyed their disillusionment. Novecentism was perceived by them as a movement who were too concerned with ornamentation, thereby leading to degeneration in an unsophisticated and sterile formula unrelated to structure or material.

On December 1926, the Rationalists came out with a four part series of articles in a cultural review, Rassegna Italiana, to understand an architecture response fittingly to twentieth century that was Rationalism.3———————————————————————————————————————1 Modern Architecture since 1900 by William J.R. Curtis, Pg 212 Modern Architecture since 1900 by William J.R. Curtis, Pg 3603 Building Modern Italy, Italian Architecture 1914-1936 by Dennis P. Doordan, pg 45 – 52Central to the writings of Gruppo 7 was the belief that the ‘universal’ achievements of the Modern Movement were not incompatible with a national character. Indeed, the manifesto embraced a nationalist programme consistent with the cultural policies of the fascist regime.

Echoing Le Corbusier, their manifesto announced the advent in Europe of the new spirit; it was distinguished by strict adherence to logic and rationality, a concern for rhythm and classical proportions and a sense of history as faith in the spirit of the age.

The first installment discussed their concept of true modern architecture and how it should be progressively approached by identifying logical solutions. They believed that architects gain experience with new materials and they should sensitize themselves in the new merging spirit. They never related architecture with machines or to compromise design due to calculation of mechanical formulas. They also assumed that with the awareness of national traditions, a new architecture would certainly surface.

The second and third installments of the manifesto discussed the architectural scene in Europe, particularly in Italy, deploring the poor quality of architectural education and the general public’s lack of comprehension, while the last part characterized that period as ‘a new archaic era’ in which architects were confronted with the promising beginnings of a new style. It served to amplify points made in the preceding installments. Gruppo 7 drew parallel between the contemporary situations with earlier history of architecture. According to them, to develop fulfillment in architecture, patient and thoughtful development is necessary whereby architects have to cultivate a sense of unselfishness in the disciplines.

Throughout the movement, the Rationalists fought to move architecture away from neo-classical and neo-baroque revivalism so as to embrace both Rationalist principles and aspects of modernist aesthetics. They wanted to provide design solutions in harmony with the new forms of living and working in an industrial society.

It was the sincerity; the strict adherence to the manifesto; and the sense of history that the Rationalists were looking for in architecture. They wanted to create functional architecture through the articulation of form based either on the precise study of structures or from the juxtaposition of horizontal and vertical components such as strip windows or protruding edges of slabs. 4Some other common features in which the Rationalists incorporated into their designs were the smooth surfaces, the clear arrangement of the volumes, the embodiment of Nature and the logical relationship between architecture and sculpture.

These architectural elements were evident in Terragni’s works, particularly the most important commission of his career: the Casa Del Fascio in Como, in 1932.The building had four symmetrical facades which contained radically different messages. The facades and details followed a strict system of geometric proportion. This aspect corresponded to the first installment in the manifesto – that architectural design should be about identifying the logic solution of programmatic requirement.5———————————————————————————————————————4 Building Modern Italy, Italian Architecture 1914-1936 by Dennis P. Doordan, pg 535 Giuseppe Terragni by Bruno ZeviThe strict system of geometric proportion portrayed the logical and orderly thinking that was supposed to be instilled in the architecture of Italian Rationalism.6 The facades were completely free of applied ornament. This further affirmed the second installment of the non-existence of ornamental themes or abstract ideologies in Rationalism architecture.

Other than being a physical realization of modern architecture, Casa Del Fascio was also a symbolic statement about the nature of Fascism. There were many openings allowing a maximum amount of light and air through the extensive use of glass. This “house of glass” represented an openness that discarded any barriers, hindrances and obstacles between the Fascist leaders and the people. From this building, we can also see an intransigent inspiration towards perfection, and this has a political connotation too – the antithesis of the fascist reality. Not forgetting the fourth installment, the use of glass as a new material provided new opportunities for architects during that period.7Another major project as a result of the movement was Casa Elettrica. The house measured 8m by 16m in plan which formed a half-cube similar to Terragni’s Casa Del Fascio. The planning for it was rigorously functional and logical. Figini and Pollini designed the Casa Elettrica in this way so that it integrated industrial and architectural procedures for harmonious domestic inhabitation within an industrialized environment, achievable by the extensive use of glass.

Casa Elettrica was the first of its kind which created a novel kind of domestic landscape filled with new objects and experiences. Driven by the desire of logic and order; and the technological advancement during industrialization, Bottoni worked on the kitchen installation where he planned the layout and inserted a rotating section in the counter top. This rational approach reflected the theme of the pavilion: increased comfort and efficiency through the introduction of labor-saving electrical devices.8Figini and Pollini also embodied Nature within their architecture by enhancing the relationship between the interior and the surrounding environment. They designed panoramic broad windows in order to enjoy the views of the outdoors. The main living room had one huge glazed wall providing a panoramic view into the garden. 9Mussolini’s influence by Fascism was shown in the Palazzo dell’ Esposizione, a temporary structure built for Mostra Della Rivoluzione Fascista, marking the tenth anniversary of the fascist March on Rome. The entire new façade was a huge central blood red cube with rectangular wings as the background, and four huge, freestanding metallic fasci littori (symbol of the Fascist party) standing in front. The symmetrical properties of this façade yet again reflected the emphasis of logic in Rationalism. The use of steel also accentuated the fourth installment, where different constructive possibilities have emerged. This fascist political emblem, after being transformed into a giant architectural element, not only changed the whole outlook of the Palazzo dell’ Esposizione in an extremely dramatic fashion, but its striking facade also adjusted the whole street-scape of the Via Nazionale, a major traffic artery of Rome.10 This architectural design thus asserted a sense of priority and importance of the political considerations in the lives of the people of the nation.

———————————————————————————————————————6 Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940 by Richard A. Etlin, Pg 4397 Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940 by Richard A. Etlin, Pg 4458 Building Modern Italy, Italian Architecture 1914-1936 by Dennis P. Doordan, pg 609 Building Modern Italy, Italian Architecture 1914-1936 by Dennis P. Doordan, pg 6110 Building Modern Italy, Italian Architecture 1914-1936 by Dennis P. Doordan, pg 132Shortly after in 1943, the mysterious death of Terragni and Cattaneo brought Italian Rationalism movement to an abrupt close.11It was questionable how the movement came to an end so easily. Evidently, despite all their efforts, Rationalism was not widely accepted. The Rationalists were accused of reducing architecture to engineering, of eliminating the spiritual content of art. The Functionalism has removed the obligation of sensibility, emotion, and ideas and has transported it outside the category of art, reducing it to the condition of pure practicality.12 Many had felt that the “spiritual needs” were left unaccounted in Rationalists’ architecture.13In addition, the Italian Rationalists were also provoked of introducing a foreign style, in particular a German style, into Italy which caused many critics fear of losing Italy’s traditional culture and identity.14As the manifesto was uncertain and misleading in nature of the relationship between internationalist and nationalist principles, it was criticized as a weak point in the definition of Italian Rationalism.15 At the same time, the Rationalists development of architecture with recognizable national characteristics had been interpreted as an obstacle to the effective modernization of Italian architectural practice.16 This distinctive national identity within the context of European design was criticized as a reflection of a narrow interpretation of modern architecture.

Marcello Piacentini, one of the commanding figures of Italian architecture during the 1920s, also criticized that the Rationalists’ formula was inadequate for Italy, both technically and aesthetically.17 He viewed the functionalist credo of the Rationalists too simplistic and climatically inappropriate, thus irrational. The architecture had large glass windows that let in too much light, and there were no cornice to protect the walls from rains and no attics to protect the upper floors from heat or cold. Thus it was not a truly rational architecture but rather a style which is a type of décor.18 In addition, he also argued that the Rationalists had left out the importance of appreciating typological hierarchy in their architecture. Thus he expressed fear that Rationalist buildings would be out of character in the historical fabric of Italian cities.

In our personal opinion, one of the reasons Rationalism failed was because the Rationalists failed to translate Traditionalism into Italian context. The Italians are known for their relatively strong culture and Roman spirituality, in comparison to other cities in Europe. As a result, it was a near impossible feat to imbue them with the logic and sensibility in buildings. The people of Italy feel that their culture should reflect upon the architecture, yet the rational buildings stripped the streets of Rome completely of their identity.

———————————————————————————————————————————11 Modern architecture: a critical history by Kenneth Frampton, pg 20912 Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940 by Richard A. Etlin, pg 32213 Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940 by Richard A. Etlin, pg 32514 Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940 by Richard A. Etlin, pg 32215 Building Modern Italy, Italian Architecture 1914-1936 by Dennis P. Doordan, pg 5216 Building Modern Italy, Italian Architecture 1914-1936 by Dennis P. Doordan, pg 7217 Building Modern Italy, Italian Architecture 1914-1936 by Dennis P. Doordan, pg 7318 Modernism in Italian Architecture, 1890-1940 by Richard A. Etlin, pg 324In 1942, the Rationalists collaborated with Marcello Piacentini, a critic of Italian Rationalism, on the plan for the E42 Exposition, in spite of their different beliefs and architectural styles. We felt that this led to a loss of faith among the Rationalism supporters within Italy, as the integrity of Rationalism architecture appeared to be so readily compromised. Evidently, over the years, the devotees of Roman spirituality proved that their belief for their tradition was stronger than that of the Rationalists’ beliefs in their own movement. This inevitably pushed the scale towards the death of Italian Rationalism.

There was undeniable disunity among the advocators of Italian Rationalism. The structures of their organizations were not constituted, and as a result, it caused disputes within the groups. Piacentini’s criticisms on the architecture of Rationalism in publications also proved to have weakened their unity, when it should have strengthened their conviction.

Moreover, the public was blatantly criticizing the Rationalists’ for ‘copying’ works by other architects built in other parts of Europe. While they were defended by a few parties, with the claim that it was in an effort to improve on their designs, it was clear from the buildings built that the similarities were uncanny. Eg. Novoconum by Terragni took the strip windows, roof and the structural system direct from Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye.

Due to these contributing factors, when Terragni and Cattaneo died, the opposition took it as an opportunity to end the movement, and there were no strong advocators succeeding. The dissenting architects went underground.

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Frampton, Kenneth. (2003). Modern Architecture – A Critical History (3rd ed.). Chapter 23: Giuseppe Terragni and the architecture of Italian Rationalism 1926-1943. London, UK: Thames & Hudson.